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Arbitrary power. Rent-seeking and corruption
【Abstract】 this article to corruption as a breach of contract between principal and agent behavior. This does not necessarily mean that corruption is immoral, because the nature of violations of the contract is actually based on the characteristics of which they may be. Is the case, in many cases, corruption is the production of defects in the system and can understand a reasonable response, and the system is not usually accidental. To illustrate this point, the analysis of three different types of institutional framework: the developed countries, least developed countries and countries in transition. With the mainstream theory of corruption in different ways, this is mainly to discuss the framework of different systems, different reasons Corruption, scope and results. Therefore, the conclusions should be adjusted standardized. Body】 【 DiscretionaryPower, Rent-SeekingandCorruption arbitrary power, rent-seeking and corruption 1. Anti-corruption policy really make sense? That is, when direct or not direct the individual subject to a contractual relationship in violation of the terms of respect for private profit, the corruption will be created. The most typical is about the bureaucracy of the case: to use its power to reduce the cost of certain agents, but at the expense of the expense of the interests of other agents. Or they can increase the cost of individual transactions with the government and demanded some compensation. As government officials in their implementation and enforcement of the law before the levying of extra fees the same. , Of course, there are the bureaucrats within the limits set by the legitimate use of the terms of the situation. Under such circumstances, when the power is abused, when the coercive force is blasphemy, corruption occurred. For example, an official of the need to use their own discretion to deal with the problems concerning public interest, they blindly pursue personal gain at the expense of public welfare 2. This fact shows the possibility of a class of relatively few of our corruption. It is based on the fact: ambiguity in the public interest content of the social contract led to a personal understanding of the emergence of non-compliance is a personal understanding of the problem. Therefore, in such circumstances, corruption may be an arbitrary concept. The existence of private profit is not sufficient to show that a civil servant's behavior is illegal or harmful to society. , Of course, corruption does not exist only in the public sector. Employees of a private company in order to pursue their own interests and their employers have violated the contract entered into or shareholders should also be considered as corruption. However, this is shirking its responsibility to achieve the desired goals or not the same thing. The reason is incompetent or does not shirk its responsibility means: by making the third-party involvement to seek their own interests 3. However, the key factor is the same. That is, corruption is a violation of an agreement or clear or ambiguous and arbitrary abuse of power but linked. To itself, it can be considered equivalent to a breach in the contract. Because inhibition of social transactions, and thus from the social point of view, is reprehensible. In particular, the following factors are always present. First, there is rent-creating possibilities and pump rental. Second, the existence of barriers to entry, or the relatively high monitoring and enforcement costs, resulting in a lack of competition, and lead to corruption opportunities arise. Again, the use of rent-seeking opportunities through interaction with third parties, and violation of the original commission ━ ━ agent contract. From this point of view, one can clearly see that the measures aim at eliminating corruption and reasonable is consistent with the institutional arrangements, namely, the institutional arrangements that can promote competition, strengthen supervision, which can reduce the rent-seeking of the expected return. The fact is the mainstream theory of the basic conclusions. (Tanzi, 1998). However, despite the neo-classical economics on a corruption of the world is an interesting attempt to describe, but in addressing the issue of corruption itself, it does not go farther away. It is often overlooked corruption is a response to the existing rules of the game,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], and most of the rules derived from the individual behavior patterns, and lines with knowledge of the needs. Particular, contrast with the traditional research, to the corruption attached to Personal morality is often interpreted as promoting the quality characteristics of social cooperation. According to the understanding of a free market, often means that social cooperation between individuals is beneficial voluntary transactions, without prejudice to the freedom of the individual. Therefore, from this point of view, corruption is certainly not desired, because it goes against the established allocation and transfer of property rights. Destruction of social cooperation is also the reason why. However, if the system rules deviate from the standards of a free society, resulting in a dominant position in the socialist government, such as the environment, then, corruption is not necessarily immoral means. In other words, corruption should be understood as such a pattern of behavior: it always showed in the results of a system failure, and this arrangement is often unavoidable to achieve other goals 4. For its part, corruption is a process without purpose, there is no moral or immoral values. That is, it can not simply judge right and wrong. Instead, the focus should be on the institutional framework, these institutional arrangements may be more or less satisfactory; error may also produce a set of incentives and inappropriate behavior and therefore disappointing economic Run 5. The term means only when the rules as a strategy to change the system and, therefore, that corruption has become superfluous, which explains why the fight against corruption is a policy. This analysis reveals the corruption of the method of study of at least two useful ways. The first is action on corruption as a market signal to drive the system characteristics. The second is the value on the corruption of a social condition, and put aside all use (must be arbitrary) to determine moral standards attempt to build value. The next section will present the first view. The third part will apply the idea developed countries, least developed and transition countries, corruption analysis, while the fourth section will draw some (limited) standardization of results. 2. Corruption as a signal transmission system with the Austrian school and professors of the market economy is the price of the individual through the scarcity of access to and exchange of information and interactive system of resource allocation decisions. Of course, the market transaction costs due to government action or intervention, absence, or both, in this case, the price systems tend to deviate from the neo-classical economic theory of the ideal state. When this phenomenon occurs, the individual is likely to be induced to act in a way to conceal, or dishonest behavior that profitable, which will contain the corruption involved. To simplify the discussion, the analysis of two different types of corruption, a place in the market area and the other in the field of government action. Simply put, the former is due to the presence of transaction costs caused by opportunistic behavior; the latter is derived from the existence of rent. Market failure market failure from the transaction costs. This reduces the chance of obtaining useful information, limiting the possibility of a mutually beneficial arrangement, increasing the cost of the implementation of the contract, it prompted the opportunistic and corrupt generation. These potential pitfalls, of course well known as agents, in order to reduce transaction costs, their efforts to develop technical, institutional, and legal rules of design and specifications. When these methods do not work, and in any case transaction costs are always greater than income, the agent will not take action. In the small and complete groups, because of smaller enterprises, there is a limited number of third-party revenue streams easy to observe, that there is more or less transparent, so the problems outlined above, the relative ease. In short, where opportunistic behavior is more likely to be effective investigation and prosecution ─ ─ for example, to isolation and exclusion. But this does not completely eliminate corruption. When unethical behavior occurs, the agent will find corruption, as long as they take a certain irregularities and thus avoid social sanctions, is profitable. In some cases where, in order to achieve their goals, even religious complex is also being used. In large groups in the opportunistic behavior is a different case, through direct monitoring may be harder to detect. And direct sanctions, there are many problems. However, with the full freedom of movement and trade in large groups, there may be considerable competitive pressure, so to expose corruption or indirect incentives to take actions to reduce the incidence of corruption. The market will punish those corrupt managers of private enterprises. Investors will abandon them, and ultimately will face the threat of being taken over more easily. As a result, service managers will lose their work and therefore lose again ━ ━ violation of commission agency contract opportunities. This explains why, in a free market economy for the manager to consider its own interests would be more honest. Because they use relatively high transaction costs may obtain short-term gains less than the profit by increasing the client may receive the present value of expected return. Course, this does not exclude small-scale corruption, it might even hold a considerable proportion. However, competition in general still play the same role. Corruption costs will be to control their misconduct can not be expelled from the enterprise market, these companies or because of legislative responsibility of the reasons is difficult to dismiss the parties, or because of their internal mechanisms are not effective in reducing opportunistic behavior. For example, when an agent selected from the engineering point of view, some may be effective in the production technology, but as an agent of corruption has increased its expected return when the 6, this situation occurs. If we say that competitive pressure is large enough to form the incentives to remain at a low level of corruption, the bottom line is that the market can not support a large number of corrupt behavior. When the elimination of its cost is greater than the gains from the time, corruption can indeed truly exist. But again, as long as the business owners (1) by the threat of competition, and (2) operating freely without the constraints of the rules or the administration of justice is invalid (because it may encourage or protect corrupt practices), then the range would be the existence of corruption its own limitations. Of course, transaction costs arising from the corruption does not require government intervention or special legislation, except for those involved in both the need to strengthen the agreement on a voluntary basis, or compensation for breach of contract; that is, the rule of law. When the party to the contract that the expected cost of corruption is too high, then the transaction does not occur. Needless to explain this truth too. The process of the free market has its own adjustment mechanism is necessary, therefore, the true costs of corruption (deadweight loss) actually focus on the potential but did not appear among the production. Despite accusations of corruption, of course markets are fair, but the results if the technology ultimately lead to the policy of strengthening the regulatory arrangements, this would still not make sense. And they do not realize, is not valid from a technical point of view, the choice may be, but need to look at reducing transaction costs is still a reasonable option. For a producer in a competitive environment, he always sought to reduce production costs, that is, the sum of transformation and transaction costs. More importantly, the analysis of markets should lead to corruption as some of the inconsistencies in the existing legislation, but to minimize corruption, the contractual arrangements for the analysis. And the focus should be on the market agents and the relationship between the government, while the government sector as the efficient allocation of property rights can hinder the only entity that can effectively limit by creating rents and competitive way, so that corruption has survived. As for the damage caused by private sector corruption, it is very similar also related to the existence of a non-perfect world, the welfare of defects, that is, incomplete information and opportunistic behavior of a large number of characteristics common to economic agents. As a result, illegal transfer of income generated, and easier to control corruption in the (otherwise identical) sector, production was gradually distorted. For its part, of course, corruption is However, it is not the nature of the economic reasons for the low efficiency of operation. Opportunism before the contract was not due to lack of specific statements, but rather high transaction costs. Again, limit corruption lies in the ability to reduce transaction costs, it comes down to entrepreneurship, individual freedom and the judiciary, the level of implementation of the contract. A large number of government failure academic energy into the public corruption (and private corruption contrary) modeling, to assess its scope and consequences 7. Reason for this interest is twofold. On the one hand, it is clear that when the transactions between different individuals, the individual efforts made by rent-seeking relative to non-individuals will have the competitive market process (because it can not use any arbitrary power, not to mention the and decreasing the value of the large number of rental guarantee) a higher earnings. Thus, the level of corruption in the public domain by the private sector more than the reasonable opinion of value. In addition, the private sector tends to corrupt behavior can be observed negligible. As noted earlier, otherwise the number of transactions can not occur simultaneously. It is difficult to detect corruption in the private sector, and the consequences of substance can not be estimated. When government failure occurs, the problem is not how relevant. As to the first point, property rights and competitive pressures will no longer have an impact on the government agents. Therefore, to reduce bad behavior is relatively weak stimulation of 8. And this stimulation depends on the result of judicial intervention, before the lies, whether induced by the judiciary is fundamental to take action. Happen, or because honest people openly accused of corruption, but also, or more commonly, because of its rent-seeking corruption agents have lost the power of the same corruption in other people, and such action is purely jealousy. However, more generally, corruption and rent-seeking often to long-term strategic approach taken in the same agents in a repetitive motion of a line 9. As a result, the loser is dispersed relatively non-threatening for some interest groups (taxpayers). Therefore, some observers called a On the measure of corruption, all the time the transaction occurred, so the results of public corruption is easier to quantify. Indeed, corruption can create an honest environment in the trading market could not produce 10. In addition, by comparing the environment of corruption and As previously mentioned, research and government action related to corruption, the main methodology are: the emergence of this phenomenon is no longer subject to some transaction costs, the contrary, it is a deliberate distortion of allocation of property rights and regulatory responsibilities of the market reaction. Although the traditional analysis of corruption is often considered harmful, but the real question is to a corrupt status quo and a viable alternative compared. For example, if the inefficient allocation of property rights and, unless effective control, or their trading is not possible; or if the distribution of property rights is not fully 11, then bribery is significant. But of course, if the alternative option is a property with better programs (and equally effective monitoring), then this view should be changed to 12. Is because the Government is the sole legal authority to create and support the rental agency, which explains why the economic analysis of corruption, influence government depends heavily on the role of institutional arrangements. Finally, the corruption phenomenon can be understood as an essential element of rent-seeking, whereby decision makers attempt to occupy part of the rent, while other agents are trying to reduce the decision-making positions than any power. Corruption in the evaluation of both how it works and whether it can be reduced, is considered essential. On their analysis, we will go to the next section. 3. Three different rent-seeking phenomena of the next section of the main structure of the three different systems. For convenience, they are limited to developed countries, with representatives of significance (DCs), the least developed countries (UDCs) and transition countries (TCs). This classification should still emphasize their difference is not that location, nor the per capita GDP data shows the per capita income levels. On the contrary, the legitimate role of government based on individual, reasonable rent, and are therefore generally considered the understanding of corruption can be tolerated, the three groups had significant differences. Although the mechanisms of corruption may be beyond the scope of this article, but the next sections will focus on these different institutional arrangements under the essential characteristics of corruption. In particular, the developed countries to free trade with the characteristics of modern democratic system as the environment, improve the social welfare system and extensive infiltration of the institutional environment. On the other hand, the structure of the least developed countries are dominated by autocratic power, so the lack of political and economic competition. Finally, the transition countries due to the decline of the communist system, causing the absence of a system. Named by the party-controlled system has been an irresponsible replaced by bureaucracy and political class, and this class are often forced to ruins of socialism and free market characteristics, the search for a workable compromise. Rent-seeking and dependence developed seeking markets in developed countries focus on the behavior triggered by the private agents, who in order to avoid the pressure of competition, or legal constraints, while trying to get protection. It is suitable for market, for example, when producers tried to avoid the obligations of weakness (or is supported against) other producers and new entrants time. This also applies to factor markets, for example, when the owners of labor and capital elements of trying to get out of the marginal value of the rewards. Therefore, the analysis is the core of ⑴ recognition can be defined by changing the distribution of property rights as voluntary,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], but legally rent-creating agent, and ⑵ such rental transaction. Although the phenomenon of corruption usually refers to the latter, but it really depends on the characteristics of the former 13. Free market environment is clearly ruled out the elements required for government corruption, because in such conditions, the government can not legally rent creation, let alone produce a trade. However, modern industrial society, of course, far less than the free market ideal. Individuals in order to protect individual group, or to reduce some uncertainty in the restructuring of property and revenue streams, often accept such rent-creating. If so, we so want to know why the corruption ─ ─ transactions such as rental property, but not illegal does not own ─ ─ fundamentally to be a problem. In fact, tend to be from the rent-seeking corruption that is caused by government intervention in the economy's sad but unavoidable cost. Similarly, it was accepted by the judiciary as a relatively small problem. However, in order to preserve power (not to use the power) to take unethical behavior, corruption, and to get a different meaning is more indirect. More specifically, the arguments put forward here is: the most important developed countries, corruption is not the intention of rent creation, nor is it pumping rent. Instead, it relies on to maintain the desire and the use of power itself, and to satisfy personal ambition, to enhance social status and personal honor, the desire to maintain the welfare system. All this of course is different from the According to this view, powerful groups do not have to get what they want, and bribe decision makers. No matter how many politicians are keen to meet the needs of the Group, as long as this can increase his popularity among voters. On the other hand, 15 in a stable society, even if a lot of pumping to create opportunities for rent, many of dubious moral rent is also likely to have been reduced. The reason is that a very high transparency of the system developed enough to expose illegal rent-seeking society, and thus increasing the power of serving the possibility of losing their politicians. Explained above the degree of decision-makers wish to accept bribes, especially when political parties are considered when necessary to maintain the welfare system, this will even be very strong. Corrupt officials on demand, where the view that developed countries corruption is based on two considerations. First, bribery is a generation of policy makers to reduce any power. It is a mechanism whereby producers in developed countries and (in lesser extent) elements of individual decision-makers to lure owners become dependent on illegal income, it might even hint of future exposure to extortion 16. Of course, to make their actions more predictable and ultimately reduce the commercial operation associated with the regular transaction costs, and policy makers to create a dependent class is feasible. The difference is that corruption in developed countries tends to a bottom-up process. It from under the sky, its main purpose is not directly associated with the rent-seeking. Rather, it is deliberately cause the behavior can be expected, and therefore reduce the arbitrary power. On the second, it seems very clear that the political life of most developed countries is controlled by a small political groups, rather than the majority. Political parties and majority rule charter to discuss the feasibility of the control is not the purpose of this article. The results of the different political processes, as a modern democratic political system, different systems have a major function of not enough space here to analyze. However, the practical, if only a selected group of political parties as a way to express preferences, but also a mechanism to ensure system stability 17, then it obtain financial of resources, of course, is reasonable, even in violation of the formal law. Is such that in some Western European countries, bribery has become a political party as the framework for the financing of the system under the control of the means of financial resources. Thus, for the general public can tolerate corruption, political interests are often (but individual members or leaders are involved, this rarely happens.) When the scandal outbreak of, or where a taxpayer deliberately take too expensive to be public utilities, this point is very obvious. Therefore, developed countries, corruption is considered to be effective even as it reduces transaction costs, the expected behavior of agents, and stable system environment. Excessive corruption is always there, sometimes even quite common. Usually effective inspection and supervision system but by the (independent) news media and public opinion formed, rather than the judiciary. Thus, in developed countries, should be attributed to the extreme corruption policy makers, media, misjudgment, or both. Of course, corruption may be more common in developed countries, the individual is more serious, but not necessarily lead to extremely harmful results. Now, predictability need to have sufficient high-level politicians and bureaucrats in the upper part of the key as to act in accordance with the expectations, then, corruption is likely to have a certain breadth and depth of 18. However, to achieve the expected goal as long as corruption, and political groups are strong enough to guarantee its stability, and that corruption would not be extremely harmful. The typical rent-seeking literature, the so-called In other words, within the framework of such a system, Of course, as the judiciary to enhance its role and powers of the effect of hard or sharp investigative results may, and doomed to an outbreak of the scandal. As a result, political cause may thus be destroyed, but the rules of the game is almost can not be neutralized or changed. This conclusion is also made with the mainstream theory of the dispersion of some recognized consistent with the empirical evidence. If corruption is to create or transfer the price to be paid rent,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], that will mean a considerable sum of money, can be said that this number far exceeds the least developed countries. Of course, it may be the same as generated by the privileges of the discounted value of future expected income, while in developed countries, this figure is likely higher than any other place. However, the experience of developed countries does not seem to reflect such a large quantity. According to the views stated, the reason is based on the facts: In order to introduce some kind of bribery in fact rely on, and the need to raise the ambitions of politicians and income requirements, income criteria or bureaucratic. Ultimately, the goal is to meet the political party groups, which, in turn, on the welfare system but also ensure the maintenance of 19. As a result, the number of the amount involved is also dependent on the institutional structure of political parties, party discipline, as well as the welfare system and the collective Insurance the concept of cultural similarities. Within the system in developed countries, there are two extra point worth mentioning. Both countries took note of corruption that led to the premise and policy responses. For the first view, it is worth noting that it believed that corruption in developed countries is to reduce the uncertainty of the individual, but based on a violation of individual freedom consistent with agreements reached. Personal decisions under the pressure of competition, it was transformed into a collective under mild competitive price. This led to corruption has become a practice of creating (with the politicians and bureaucrats like) the way government officials behavioral inertia. It also implies that public sector wages tend to lower level, so that stronger dependence of corruption. Moreover, public sector administration is a multi-layer, which will expand the opportunities for redistribution, reduced the responsibilities of civil servants, and increased high-level system of promotion and no direct payment by the (illegal) Money transfer method to control low-level opportunities. In short, corruption is not exclusive to the common desire for a welfare society. Rather, by reducing the arbitrary power to act to ensure that a consensus agreement that the maintenance and even expand. When the responsibility is clearly divided, and the competitive pressure is high, this is undoubtedly good to meet the individual freedom and self-improvement of the intention, so that the corruption redundant. However, these views do not reflect today's most developed countries is almost a priority matter; Therefore, corruption is bound to exist. This leads to the second view. When the fight against corruption range of developed and proposed policy responses by the inspection,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], we should evaluate the extent to which the means of corruption in the creation of rent and purchase; the extent to which government officials passing any power to reduce the demand signal. Since the The fight against corruption regardless of the mechanism of competition, its chances of success are very limited 20. At this time, rent-seeking behavior, although not developed to a great extent, but very difficult to make such a deal would be more harmful distortion. For example, if the victim is denied the possibility of money to change the status quo, then, for the people and the agreement Zhonghuo rules will no longer be maintained at (some) under the control of 21. The bottom line is that developed countries Therefore, the occasional cry out against corruption, the result of jealousy, not too many errors in the estimates, out of moral disapproval results. Public opinion usually understood as some kind of harsh justice problems, the legal system rather than an essential part of this is obvious with these sections of the proposed method is consistent. As mentioned before, in fact, if money is diverted to meet the interests of political groups rather than directly into the personal pockets, this is more or less tolerable 22. Conclusion, taking into account the preferences of today's developed countries dominated, for corruption can do the best thing is to accept it as a welfare society dominated by the principle of arbitrary power within the system to reduce the effective way. As long as the bribe is intended to obtain the rent, and justice through the power of free trade (as a control violation, the implementation of contracts) will be to combat corruption, and effective control of 23. , Of course, the views presented in this paper is not entirely with the traditional analysis of corruption in the public choice approach consistent with the specification. As public choice scholars believe that corruption is a government official to get rent for the creation and use of transaction cost approach, effective supervision within the public sector and higher salaries are always recommended as a feasible way to eliminate bad behavior. Although public choice theory may be more suitable for the least developed countries and countries in transition ─ ─ it will discuss in the next few paragraphs ─ ─ But here that the nature and extent of corruption in developed countries and least developed countries, transition countries, the reality remains very different. These transaction costs to meet the enormous practice is not just a failure. Environment in developed countries, these theories is a necessary trade-off is the transfer of powers to government officials, an effective way, both to run the public policy for government officials, on the other hand fear that this authorization may be transformed into a more arbitrary power. LDCs rent-seeking and loyalty in the least developed countries (UDCs), corruption is a different case, and to meet different purposes, where it means by the economic and political freedom limit. Such circumstances, the rulers and / or dominant elites not have to face a competitive political way. Rulers and people relations between the social contract implicit in the developed countries so severely weaker than 24. In fact, the least developed countries policy makers are most concerned about are: to ensure that competition can not be established, and its power to keep non-controversial. Because corruption is limited to economic and civil liberties of the result, so the leader has an incentive to maintain those limits. In the framework of such a system, the rulers are bound to rely on a smaller elite group to help him control of central power, and the possible role of tension region (the army is one thing, the city is another focus aspects), to strengthen unity. Of course, unity can not be achieved through economic development, because it will be a new strong interest groups, and eventually the formation of the leader of the threat. Therefore, the formation of a large bureaucracy is often an attractive solution. Civil servants will be offered a guaranteed minimum income, but also have the opportunity to get extra money, or more generally, is based on the mercy of the ruling class, enjoy the extra income through corruption. The difference is that a large low-level bureaucratic system to build a unified development of a dictator (or ensure that the limited support for opponents of the potential) channels. This need to maintain a low wage levels and tolerance of corruption to achieve, they have been reasonably understood as a bureaucratic regime themselves a kind act 25. In short, the corruption of the least developed countries in two different classes, and for two different purposes. Rent the top of the dictator created then the individual will be sold to foreigners rented for cash, or transfer to the domestic elite in exchange for loyalty. In this case, corruption has therefore become essential elements of both. This allows the accumulation of personal wealth, the rulers, and you can enjoy the act of ignoring the conscience, until the international community is involved. Once you reach the purpose, which means that the exchange of protection and rent, so they are indifferent to public opinion, but also the potential to resist the possibility of domestic to foreign political and financial support for the opponents. In addition, it sometimes creates a faithful or even highly qualified officials in the power structure 26. In the lower level, corruption is the dominant way to leading officials. In the previous cases, rent-seeking characteristics of corruption is obvious, but in the present framework, it is more a means to buy loyalty. Therefore, if given the constraints to its efficient manner, as the alternative assessment should be. The best alternative would be to increase wages and taxes. However, it is difficult to work. Unless strengthen the judiciary, either of these measures will not reduce the level of corruption, but it is almost unrealistic,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], because the ruler's arbitrary power may be threatened, and eventually be cut. In addition, small-scale corruption is usually based on repeat transactions between individuals, the goal is to extract the remaining amount, not the expulsion of commercial rivals. While in this area had to fine-tune is far from perfect, especially when the bureaucratic regime defection is common, then the promotion of the tax system is still more desirable, it will be expelled from the least developed countries a lot of tangible company and may also create a new (corrupt) rent-seeking stratum ─ ─ taxman 27. On the reduction of corruption, this goal is not necessarily wise to place clear. Unless the economic system was completely changed (both from administrative intervention, to establish a free economic system, 2 , otherwise, the efforts to eliminate corruption, political instability will result, which is due to potential new anti-corruption campaign as a dictator might use abolition of the reign of rulers and the international reputation for their own way. Of course, reason to believe that an authoritarian government (even a new government) must make use of corruption as a fundamental means of saving power; the same time to launch a low-level anti-corruption campaign as a way to exercise control over the bureaucracy, and as interest groups is pregnant the threat of 29. Next two conclusions. First, when the civil war and ethnic conflict is no longer a distant possibility, a
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